The Abenaki (means “people of the dawn” or “easterners”) are a Native American tribe. They are one of the Algonquian-speaking peoples of northeastern North America. The Abenakis are original natives of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. After European colonists arrived, many Abenakis fled to Canada or moved in with neighboring tribes. Today, Abenaki Indians live on two reservations in Quebec and scattered around New England. Abenakis in the United States do not have a reservation. The Abenaki tribe is not federally recognized in the United States means Abenakis in the United States don’t have reservations or their own governments. The Abenaki of New England also have bands with chiefs, but they are unofficial.

Previously villages consisted of small birchbark buildings, called wigwams or lodges, and were about the size of a modern camp tent. Some Abenaki families preferred to build larger Iroquois-style longhouses instead. An Abenaki village contained many wigwams or longhouses, a meeting hall, and a sweat lodge. Many villages also had palisades (high log walls) around them to guard against attack. The Abenaki tribe was well-known for their birchbark canoes and their quillwork, beadwork and black ash baskets.

Official recognition by the US is important to the Abenaki tribe. They do not have hunting or fishing rights; they cannot sell arts and crafts under Indian craft laws; and other American Indians don’t always recognize or cooperate with them. The Abenaki want to be recognized as a true Indian tribe, but because their ancestors often hid from the Americans or fled into Canada, they cannot prove that they lived in New England continuously since the 1600’s.

Akimel O’odham means “River People”, but are often simply referred to as Pima. The Akimel have lived on the banks of the Gila River and Salt River since long before European contact. Originally they lived in temporary matriarchal villages in order to tend crops, to weave baskets and to trade.

Many members of the group were experts in the field of textiles and wove beautiful intricate baskets for their own personal uses. By the turn of the century as explorers and settlers headed west, they began to acquire Pima baskets for their own needs. Now basket weaving was practiced in every home. The practice of making and selling baskets continued into the early 20th century, at which time Southwest Indian basketry became a collectible commodity. The basketry work of this group has long been renowned for its sensitive and beautiful baskets created from the simplest of materials in the harsh environs of the southwest

Descendants of the ancient Hohokam peoples, this people have extensive roots in the southwest, reaching long into the prehistoric past.

The short name, “Pima,” is believed to have come from the phrase “pi mac”, meaning “I don’t know,” which they used repeatedly in their initial meetings with Spanish colonists. This term was adopted by later English speakers: traders, explorers and settlers.

The majority population Akimel O’odham are based in two reservations: the Keli Akimel O’odham on the Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) and the On’k Akimel O’odham on the Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community (SRPMIC).  Another group who were known as the Papago or Desert Pima are now known by their own name as the Tohono O’odham Nation.

From prehistoric times until the mid-19th century, the Akimel O’odham people lived a subsistence life in a harsh arid land. An era of prosperity for the tribe began in 1853 with the Gadsden Purchase, when the US acquired southern Arizona. New markets were developed, initially to supply immigrants heading for California. Grain was needed for horses of the Butterfield Overland Mail and for the military during the American Civil War.

Unfortunately this period of prosperity did not last due to the San Carlos Irrigation Project. The Gila and Salt Rivers are now dammed upstream which blocks the flow of water to their ancestral farming lands. The upstream diversion of water, in combination with periods of drought, led to lengthy periods of famine. This abuse of water rights was the impetus for a nearly century long legal battle between the Gila River Indian Community and the United States government, which was settled in favor of the Akimel O’odham and signed into law by George W. Bush in December 2005.

Today, over 9,000 individuals are enrolled tribal members. They proudly own and operate several successful enterprises including Talking Stick Golf Club, Talking Stick Resort, Salt River Fields, Salt River Devco, Casino Arizona, Salt River Sand and Rock, Phoenix Cement, Saddleback Communications, Salt River Financial Services, and Salt River Landfill.

Adapted from information from: Indian Baskets of the Southwest by Clara Lee Tanner  and from The Gila River Community at http://www.gilariver.org

Apache (pronounced uh-PAH-chee), means “enemy” in the language of their Zuni neighbors. The Apaches’ own name for themselves was traditionally Nde or Ndee (which means “the people”), but today most Apache people use the word “Apache” themselves, even when they are speaking their own language.

The Apache are natives of the Southwest deserts (particularly in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas). Some Apache people were also located across the border in northern Mexico. One Apache band, the Na’ishan or Plains Apache, lived far away from the other Apaches, in what is now Oklahoma. Their customs were different from other Apaches, more similar to their Kiowa neighbors. For that reason, the Americans often called the Na’ishan “Kiowa-Apaches.”  The Plains Apaches are still living in Oklahoma today. Some Apaches from other bands were captured and sent to live in Oklahoma by the Americans in the 1800’s, while other Apaches resisted being moved and remain in Arizona and New Mexico today. The total Apache Indian population today is around 30,000. There are thirteen different Apache tribes in the United States today: five in Arizona, five in New Mexico, and three in Oklahoma. Each Arizona and New Mexico Apache tribe lives on its own reservation. Reservations are lands that belong to Indian tribes and are under their control. The Oklahoma Apaches live on trust land. Each Apache tribe has its own government, laws, police, and services, just like a small country. However, the Apaches are also US citizens and obey American law.

In the past, each Apache band was led by its own chief, who was chosen by a tribal council. Most important decisions were made by the council, and all the Apache councilmembers had to agree before an action could be taken. An Apache chief was more like a tribal chairman than a president. Most of his job was mediating between other Apaches. Most Apache tribes still use tribal councils for their government today.

Almost all Apache people speak English today, but many Apaches also speak their native Apache language, which is closely related to Navajo. Apache is a complex language with tones and many different vowel sounds. Most English speakers find it very difficult to pronounce.

Apache women were in charge of the home taking care of children and the cooking. The women built new houses for their families every time the tribe moved. The Apache people lived in wickiups, which are simple wooden frames covered by a matting of brush and sometimes a buffalo-hide tarp. Wickiups were small dwellings, often the size of a modern camp tent, and an Apache woman could build a new wickiup in two hours if there was enough brush available. The Plains Apaches and some Lipan Apaches used buffalo-hide tipis as housing instead, which are more spacious and easier to heat than wickiups. Though it was rare for an Apache woman to become a warrior, girls learned to ride and shoot just like the boys did, and women often helped to defend Apache villages when they were attacked. Apache men were hunters, warriors, and political leaders. Only men were chiefs in the Apache tribe, although both genders took part in storytelling, artwork and music, and traditional medicine.  Apache artists are famous for their fine beadwork and basketry.

Originally Apache women wore buckskin dresses and the men wore leather war shirts and breechcloths. In the 1800’s, many Apache men began to wear white cotton tunics and pants, which they adopted from the Mexicans and many Apache women, wore calico skirts and dresses. The Apaches wore moccasins or high moccasin boots on their feet. An Apache lady’s dress or warrior’s shirt was often fringed and beaded for decoration. The Apaches did not traditionally wear feather war bonnets, but the Plains Apaches adopted these headdresses from their Kiowa allies. Other Apache people wore leather or cloth headbands instead. Women usually wore their hair long and loose or gathered into a bun. Many young Apache women fastened their buns with hourglass-shaped hair ornaments called nah-leens.  Apache men often cut their hair to shoulder length (except in the Plains Apache tribe.) Both sexes liked to wear shell jewelry, especially choker-style necklaces. The Apaches also painted their faces for special occasions. They used different patterns for war paint, religious ceremonies, and festive decoration.

The Apaches traded regularly with other tribes of the Southwest. They particularly liked to trade for corn from agricultural tribes like the Navajo and Pueblo tribes. More often, though, the Apaches were known for raiding neighboring tribes and stealing horses, corn, and other goods. The Apaches had different ideas about war than Europeans did. The Europeans considered a direct attack honorable but thought sneaking in and stealing things was cowardly. But to the Apaches, stealthily raiding another tribe’s camp was a brave deed because it meant risking their own lives, but attacking the camp openly would be shameful, because children and old people were likely to be hurt. Apache warriors usually only fought real wars over matters of revenge or defending their lands from invaders, such as the Mexicans and Americans. At other times, Apache men went on raids primarily to prove their courage.

Adapted from Native Languages of the Americas by Laura Redish and Orrin Lewis

Arapaho (pronounced “Uh-RAH-puh-hoe)” may be a corruption of the Pawnee word for ‘traders.’ The Arapahos call themselves Hinono-eino or Inuna-ina, which means “our people,” but today they also use the word Arapaho (sometimes spelled Arapahoe.)  The Arapahos were far-ranging people, especially once they acquired horses. By the time the Americans met them they were living on the Great Plains in what is now Colorado, Wyoming, Nebraska and Kansas. Eventually the US government deported the Southern Arapaho tribe to Oklahoma, where they joined together with the Cheyenne. The Northern Arapaho tribe remains in Wyoming today.

There are two Arapaho tribes today: the Northern Arapahos live on a reservation, which they share with the Shoshone; and the Southern Arapahos live on trust land together with the Southern Cheyennes. Each Arapaho tribe has its own government, laws, police, and services, just like a small country. However, since they are also US citizens, they obey American law.  In the past, Arapaho bands were led by traditional chiefs chosen by an Arapaho tribal council. Today, both Arapaho reservations are shared with Indians of other tribes, and these communities have leaders who are elected by all the Indians living there. Because a single tribe was created from two tribes who didn’t understand the others’ language, the Arapaho language was very difficult to preserve. Today Arapaho is an endangered language; however, some elders still speak the old language, and people of the tribe are working to keep their language alive.

Arapaho people lived in tall buffalo-hide houses called tipis (or teepees) which were carefully designed to set up and break down quickly. An entire Arapaho village could be packed up and ready to move within an hour. Originally tipis were only about 12 feet high, but after the Arapaho acquired horses, they began building them twice that size.

Arapaho women were in charge of the home. Besides cooking and cleaning, they built the family’s house and dragged the heavy posts with her whenever the tribe moved. Houses belonged to the women of the tribe. The men were warriors and hunters, responsible for feeding and defending their families. Only the men could become chiefs, but both genders told stories, composed music, created art, and medicines.

Although the Arapaho traded regularly with all of the tribes of the Great Plains, they also fought wars with the other tribes. Plains Indian tribes treated war differently than European countries did. They didn’t fight over territory, but instead to prove their courage, and so Plains Indian war parties rarely fought to the death and almost never destroyed each other’s villages. Instead, they preferred to count coup (touch an opponent in battle without harming him), steal an enemy’s weapon or horse, or force the other tribe’s warriors to retreat. So traditional Arapaho enemies like the Shoshones and Kiowas were not actually that unfriendly to them.

Adapted from Native Languages of the Americas by Laura Redish and Orrin Lewis

The Caddo Indian’s homeland was originally a four corners area of Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana and Arkansas. The term Caddo derives from the French abbreviation of Kadohadacho, a word meaning “real chief” or “real Caddo” in the Kadohadacho dialect. Although the Caddo people existed at the same time frame as the Anasazi of New Mexico, the Caddo were first documented by De Soto and his expedition in 1542.  Archelogy has shown that the Caddo have been in their original homeland for over 2500 years. In the early 19th century, the Caddo people were forced to a reservation in Texas, then removed to Indian Territory in 1859

In prehistoric times, the Caddo lived in communities of grass and cane covered houses, with the communities composed of farmsteads, villages, and the civic-ceremonial centers. The Caddo peoples developed a successful horticultural economy based on the cultivation of maize, beans, and squash.  After the introduction of the horse in the late seventeenth century, the Caddo began to participate in winter communal bison hunts on the prairies to the west of their settlements.

They developed long-distance trade networks as well. Important items of trade were bison hides, salt, and bows, along with copper, stone, turquoise, as well as finished objects such as pottery vessels and large ceremonial bifaces. Many of the more important trade items were obtained from great distances (e.g., turquoise from New Mexico, copper from the Great Lakes, and marine shell from the Gulf Coast), and these items were often placed as grave goods in the burials of the social and political elite. The Caddo peoples produced high quality tools, clothing, ceramic vessels, basketry, and ornaments. The Caddo are particularly well known for the beautiful artistic and functional ceramic wares they made of many forms and functions, and the ceramics are considered some of the finest aboriginal pottery manufactured in North America

During the late seventeenth century and into the eighteenth century, the Caddo participated in the fur trade, also trading guns, horses, and other items to Europeans and other Indians. They also continued to develop new trade and economic networks. The result of this trade relationship was an important means of acculturation, because great quantities of European goods became available to the Caddo.

Although some groups of Caddo continued to live through the 1830s in their traditional East Texas homeland, other groups moved to the Brazos River in north central Texas. They remained there until they were placed on the Brazos Indian Reservation in 1855, and then in 1859 the Caddo (about 1,050 people) were removed to the Washita River in Indian Territory, now western Oklahoma.

Adapted from information found in  Handbook of Texas and CaddoPottery.com

Recommended reading:
Art of the Ancient Caddo by Jack Bonds, Grove Hill Publishing
Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: American Indian Art of the American Midwest and South by The Art Institute of Chicago, Richard Townsend, editor

The word Cherokee (pronounced CHAIR-uh-kee), comes from a Muskogee word meaning ‘speakers of another language.’  Cherokee Indians originally called themselves Aniyunwiya, “the principal people,” but today they accept the name Cherokee, which is spelled and pronounced Tsalagi in their own language.

The Cherokees are original residents of the American southeast region, particularly Georgia, North and South Carolina, Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Most Cherokees were forced to move to Oklahoma in the 1800’s along the Trail of Tears and their descendants still live in Oklahoma today. Some Cherokees escaped the Trail of Tears by hiding in the Appalachian hills or taking shelter with sympathetic white neighbors. The descendants of these people live scattered throughout the original Cherokee Indian homelands.

Trail of Tears was the Cherokee name for what the Americans called Indian Removal. During the 1800’s, the US government created an “Indian Territory” in Oklahoma and sent all the eastern Native American tribes to live there. The Cherokee tribe was one of the largest eastern tribes, and they didn’t want to leave their homeland. Some tribes willingly agreed to this plan; other tribes didn’t want to go, and found themselves forced by the American Army to make the long walk. The Cherokees were peaceful allies of the Americans, so they asked the Supreme Court for help. The judges decided the Cherokee Indians could stay in their homes.  President Andrew Jackson sent the army to march the Cherokees to Oklahoma anyway. They weren’t prepared for the journey, and it was winter time. Thousands of Cherokee and other Indians died on the Trail of Tears. It was a terrible time in history.

There are three federally recognized Cherokee tribes: the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, the United Keetoowah Band in Oklahoma, and the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians in North Carolina. Other Cherokee communities in Alabama, Georgia, and other states are considered unofficial by the US government. The Eastern Cherokee people live on a reservation. Indian reservations are lands that belong to Native American tribes and are under their control. The Oklahoma Cherokee people live on trust land, though many Cherokees call it a reservation anyway. The Keetowah Cherokee do not have a land base. Each Cherokee tribe has its own government, laws, police, and services, just like a small country. However, Cherokee Indians are also US citizens and must obey American law.  In the past, each Cherokee band was led by one war chief and one peace chief. Cherokee chiefs were chosen by a tribal council. Cherokee war chiefs were male, but the peace chief could be a woman. Today, Cherokee tribal councils and chiefs can be either gender and are popularly elected, like senators and governors.

Like their distant cousins the Iroquois, the Cherokee Indians had an even division of power between men and women. Cherokee men were in charge of hunting, war, and diplomacy. Cherokee women were in charge of farming, property, and family. Men made political decisions for the tribe, and women made social decisions for the clans. Chiefs were men, and landowners were women. Both genders took part in storytelling, artwork and music, and traditional medicine.

Today, Cherokee gender role traditions have changed. Cherokee women can be chiefs also… and Cherokee men are sometimes farmers. However, modern Cherokee people still trace clan relationships through their mothers.

The Cherokee language has an innovative writing system that was invented by the Cherokee scholar Sequoyah. Sequoyah’s writing system is a syllabary. That means one character represents each syllable. (Another language that uses a syllabary today is Japanese. Today, many Cherokee people use a modified English alphabet instead of the syllabary Sequoyah invented, because it is easier to type.

Traditional Cherokee art included pipe carving, rivercane baskets, gourd art, and pottery. After moving to Oklahoma, the Cherokees couldn’t get the materials they used to use for traditional crafts, so they concentrated on other crafts like American Indian beading and textile arts.

The Cherokee Indians traded regularly with other southeastern Native Americans, who especially liked to make trades for high-quality Cherokee pipes and pottery. The Cherokees often fought with their neighbors the Creeks, Chickasaws, and Shawnees, but other times, they were friends and allies of those tribes.

Adapted from Native Languages of the Americas by Laura Redish and Orrin Lewis

Cheyenne is pronounced “Shy-ANN.” It comes from the Dakota Sioux name for the Cheyennes, Šahiyenan, which may mean “relatives of the Cree.”  In their own language, the Cheyenne call themselves Tsitsistas, “the people.” The Cheyenne were Great Plains people, originally native to the area that is now Colorado and Wyoming. Like many tribes, the Cheyennes were forced to leave their homelands by the Americans during the 1800’s, and today they live in two distinct communities: the Northern Cheyenne in Montana, numbering 6500, and the Southern Cheyenne, who are united with their longtime allies the Arapaho into a single Nation in Oklahoma with a combined 11,000 members. Like most Native American tribes, the Cheyenne tribes are autonomous. That means each tribe has its own government, laws, police, and services, just like a small country. However, only the Northern Cheyenne have their own reservation (land which belongs to them and is legally under their control.) The Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho live on trust lands or in Western Oklahoma towns. In the past, the Cheyennes were led by a council of 44 chiefs, four from each band. The Cheyenne people really valued harmony, so every council member had to agree on a decision before action could be taken (this is called consensus.) Today, Cheyenne council members are popularly elected… but they still work by consensus.

Originally the Cheyennes lived in settled villages of earthen lodges and birchbark wigwams. As their life style became more nomadic, they began to use buffalo-hide houses called tipis (or teepees). Since the Cheyenne tribe moved frequently to follow the buffalo herds, a tipi had to be carefully designed to set up and break down quickly. An entire Cheyenne village could be packed up and ready to move on within an hour. The Cheyenne women were in charge of the home. Besides cooking and cleaning, a Cheyenne woman built her family’s house and dragged the heavy posts with her whenever the tribe moved. Houses belonged to the women in the Cheyenne tribe. Men were hunters and warriors, responsible for feeding and defending their families. A woman might occasionally become a hunter or warrior, but a Cheyenne chief was always male. The Cheyennes traded regularly with other tribes of the Great Plains preferring to trade buffalo hides for tobacco and corn. Both men and women participated in storytelling, artwork and music, and traditional medicine.

The Cheyenne also fought wars with other tribes. Plains Indian tribes treated war differently than European countries did. They didn’t fight over territory but instead to prove their courage, and so Plains Indian war parties rarely fought to the death or destroyed each other’s villages. Instead, their war customs included counting coup (touch an opponent in battle without harming him), stealing an enemy’s weapon or horse, or forcing the other tribe’s warriors to retreat. So the Cheyenne sometimes were enemies of neighboring tribes like the Sioux, Comanches, and Kiowas, and other times they were allies. The Europeans who first met them were surprised by how often the Cheyenne tribe fought with their neighbors, yet how easily they made peace with each other when they were done fighting. The Dog Soldiers were the most famous of the Cheyenne warrior societies. They were also known as the Dog Warriors or Dog Men. They had this name because of a Cheyenne legend about dogs that turned into fierce warriors. Cheyenne Dog Soldiers were especially brave and honorable. When he was defending a Cheyenne village, a Dog Soldier would stake his long belt to the ground, to show that he would not run away but would defend his people to the death.

One of the worst encounters between the Cheyenne and the soldiers occurred at Sand Creek in Colorado.

The Cheyenne were victims of factions within their own tribal clans, which were poorly understood by the American settlers encroaching on their territories. For years, relations between Cheyenne Indians and white Americans followed an ugly pattern of a settler killing a Cheyenne woman from one clan, that clan killing some settlers in revenge, and then angry soldiers killing some bewildered Cheyennes from a different clan–prompting their own kin to take revenge, and starting the cycle anew. This bloody cycle reached its worst point in the Sand Creek massacre of 1864, where Colonel Chivington deliberately attacked a reservation of peaceable Cheyennes and Arapahoes under American protection and killed more than 150 Native American men, women, and children despite their repeated attempts to surrender. Sand Creek was condemned as a heinous atrocity. Eventually the Cheyenne people were forced to move to Oklahoma. The Cheyennes from the south grudgingly accepted this arrangement, but the Cheyennes from the north could not adapt to the hot weather and returned to Montana.

Chickasaw (pronounced “CHICK-a-saw) comes from their tribal name, Chikasha, which was the name of a legendary Chickasaw leader.  The Chickasaws are original people of the American southeast, particularly Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky and Missouri. Most Chickasaws were forced to move to Oklahoma in the 1800’s, and their descendants live in Oklahoma today. Some Chickasaws escaped by hiding or pretending to be white, and the descendants of these people are still living in the original Chickasaw homelands.

The Chickasaw tribe has its own government, laws, police, and services, just like a small country. However, the Chickasaws are also US citizens and must obey American law. In the past, the Chickasaw tribe was ruled by a council of hereditary clan chiefs, led by a minko, or war chief, who made military and political decisions for the whole tribe. Today, the Chickasaw councilmembers and governor are popularly elected.

Chickasaw men were hunters and sometimes went to war to protect their families. Chickasaw women were farmers and also did most of the child care and cooking. Both genders could succeed at storytelling, artwork and music, and traditional medicine. In the past, Chickasaw chiefs were always men, but today a tribal chief may be either gender.

The Chickasaw Indians were farming people. Chickasaw women did most of the farming, harvesting crops of corn, beans, squash, and sunflowers. They also gathered wild plants such as nuts, berries, plums, and herbs. Chickasaw men did most of the hunting, shooting deer, wild turkeys, and small game and fishing in the rivers and along the coast. Chickasaw dishes included cornbread, soups, and stews cooked on stone hearths. The Chickasaws also enjoyed sassafras tea.

The Chickasaws traded regularly with all the other Southeast Native Americans. These tribes communicated using a simplified trade language called Mobilian Trade Jargon. The most important Chickasaw neighbors were the Choctaws. Long in the past, the Choctaws and Chickasaws used to be the same tribe, but then they split. After that, the two tribes sometimes fought each other, and other times were allies.

Although the Chickasaw are considered a member of the “Five Civilized Tribes” (Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee, Seminole, and Chickasaw), these five tribes were never part of an alliance together, and they did not call themselves the Civilized Tribes in their own languages. Originally, the white settlers probably called them this because these five tribes were early converts to Christianity. They were also farmers who lived in settled towns under sophisticated government systems, which Europeans and early Americans considered a higher level of civilization than independent bands of hunters who moved from place to place. However, there were dozens of other Native American tribes who also led farming lifestyles, not just these five.

Adapted from Native Languages of the Americas by Laura Redish and Orrin LewisChickasaw Cultural Center Sulphur, Oklahoma  http://www.chickasawculturalcenter.com

Choctaw is pronounced “CHOCK-taw.” It comes from their tribal name, Chahta, which was the name of a legendary Choctaw leader. The Choctaw are original people of the American southeast, particularly Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, and Florida. Most Choctaw were forced to move to Oklahoma in the 1800’s along the Trail of Tears. Their descendants live in Oklahoma today. Some Choctaw escaped by hiding or pretending to be white, and descendants of these people are still living in the original Choctaw homelands. Trail of Tears was the Choctaw and Cherokee name for what the Americans called Indian Removal. During the 1800’s, the US government created an “Indian Territory” in Oklahoma and sent all the eastern Native American tribes to live there. Some tribes willingly agreed to this plan. Other tribes didn’t want to go, and the American army forced them. The Choctaw were one of the southeastern tribes forced to move to a new location in Oklahoma. Most of them had to go on foot, and thousands died of exhaustion and disease. It was a terrible time in history. Many called the Trail of Tears the “Long Walk”.

There are two Choctaw tribes today. The Mississippi Choctaws live on a reservation, which is land that belongs to the tribe and is under their control. The Oklahoma Choctaws live on trust land. Each Choctaw tribe has its own government, laws, police, and services, just like a small country. However, the Choctaws are also US citizens and obey American law. In the past, the Choctaws were led by a council made up of two chiefs from each Choctaw band. Today, the Choctaw chief and councilmembers are popularly elected, like senators and governors are.

Choctaw men were hunters and sometimes went to war to protect their families. Choctaw women were farmers and also did most of the child care and cooking. Both genders took part in storytelling, artwork and music, and traditional medicine. Traditionally the chief was always a man, but today a Choctaw woman can be chief too.

In the past, the Choctaw people lived in settled villages of houses and farmed small cornfields. Choctaw homes were made of plaster and river cane walls, with thatched roofs. These dwellings were about as strong and warm as log cabins. Most Choctaw towns also had a ball field with benches for spectators. If a Choctaw village was near the border, it often had palisades (reinforced walls) around it for protection. The tribe regularly traded with all the other Southeast Native Americans. These tribes communicated using a simplified trade language called Mobilian Jargon. The most important Choctaw neighbors were the Chickasaws. Long in the past, the Choctaws and Chickasaws used to be the same tribe, but then they split. After that, the two tribes sometimes fought each other, and other times were allies.

Before the Trail of Tears, the Choctaw were famous for their river cane baskets and woodcarvings. When they were forced to move to Oklahoma, the Choctaws couldn’t get the materials they used to use for some of their traditional artifacts, so they concentrated more on other crafts such as painting and beadwork.

Adapted from Native Languages of the Americas by Laura Redish and Orrin Lewis

Comanche is pronounced “kuh-MAN-chee. The Comanche Indians, a nomadic offshoot of the Eastern Shoshoni Indians, lived on the North-American Southern Great Plains during 1800-1900s.  The name “Comanche”,  a household word found in many works of fiction, TV shows, videogames etc., is believed to come from the Spanish “interpretation” of their Ute name “Kohmahts”, meaning: those who are against us, or want to fight us.  The Comanche People call themselves “Numunuh”, which means: The People.  Early explorers knew them as “Padouca”; their Siouan name. The Comanche language, Uto-Aztecan (Numic), is closely related to the Shoshoni (Ute) linguistic stock.

The Comanche Indians were once part of the Northern Shoshone tribe of Wyoming, but split off from them and migrated to their modern location in the Southern Plains. By the time Europeans encountered them, the Comanche were primarily living in Texas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico. Most Comanche people today live in Oklahoma.

Prior to their acquiring the horse and gradually migrating to the Southern Great Plains around the 1700s, The Comanche had primarily been a hunter-gatherer people.  They moved, attacking and taking over territory occupied by other tribes including the Crow, the Cherokee, the Creek, the Choctaw, and the Kiowa, Apaches, and Utes.   Plains Indian tribes treated war differently than European countries did. They didn’t fight over territory but instead to prove their courage, and so Plains Indian war parties rarely fought to the death or destroyed each other’s villages. Instead, their war customs included counting coup (touching an opponent in battle without harming him), stealing an enemy’s weapon or horse, or forcing the other tribe’s warriors to retreat. So the Comanche sometimes were enemies of neighboring tribes and at other times they were allies. The Europeans who first met them were surprised by how often the Comanche tribe fought with their neighbors, yet how easily they made peace with each other when they were done fighting.

It is believed the Comanche were the first people of the Plains to use horses in their travels and conquests; they even supplied Americans with horses to reach California during the Gold Rush of 1849.  The Comanche were also dependent on the buffalo for food and clothing.

The Comanche were not a unified tribe, and were divided into 8 to 12 autonomous Sub-Nations which lacked the usual government and military organization of the Other Plains Tribes.  In turn this gave way to smaller bands and divisions.  Comanche population was also in constant flux due to the numerous casualties resulting from conflict, so their numbers varied greatly. It is estimated there are presently over 11,000 people of Comanche descent living in the United-States.

Since the Comanche Indians were more involved in warfare than storytelling and keeping historical records, most of what we know of them is through often biased third party account.

Adapted from AmericanIndianTribe.com